The Importance of Online Advertising to Hospitality and Tourism Research Proposal

The Importance of Online publicize to Hospitality and Tourism - Research Proposal ExampleIn what tracks has the net profit changed the hospitality effort? 2. What does a consumer find when they search for information regarding their travel involve? 3. What are the methods social occasiond for the hospitality industry to connect with consumers? 4. What methods used by the hospitality industry office be considered unethical when dealing with consumers searching the mesh? 5. What disadvantages can be found for the consumer as they use the internet as a means to book their travel? 6. What are the advantages of the internet as a consumer looks to book travel? By using these questions to frame the inquiry, this research project will be qualified to focus on the internet as a source of advertising for the hospitality industry and the onus that it has had on consumer travel practices. 1.3 Theoretical Foundation The study that is being proposed is a quantitative study that is base upon a survey instrument. Quantitative study often begins by wanting to test a conceptual model of the question. Theory allows for predictions on which phenomena will manifest (Polit and Beck 2008, p. 57). This study predicts that the outcome to the study will suggest that internet marketing is an important part of hospitality industry advertising and that consumers have changed their travel practices as a result. The following hypotheses will frame the inquiry that is intended for this paper Hypothesis 1 The internet has changed the way in which the hospitality industry markets to consumers. Alternative Hypothesis 1 The internet has had no issue on the way in which the hospitality industry markets to consumers. Hypothesis 2 Internet advertising has changed the way in which consumers plan for holidays and travel.... This The Importance of Online Advertising to Hospitality and Tourism essay describes the benefits which the Internet brought into the sphere of hospitalitys advertiseme nt. The hospitality industry, like most industries, has been impacted by the tools that the internet provides for advertising. Online capacities for the hospitality industry do not precisely include advertising, but the potential for transactions making travel a more accessible experience. Advertising is highly competitive on the internet with someone al shipway coming up with new ways to attract the attention of an audience that is deluged with information all coming at them at once. The hospitality industry benefits from everything from data mining techniques to websites providing specific information. Without a web based presence it is unlikely that a hospitality industry entity would have success in this globalised and interconnected world. The research questions that have been defined for this study plow the various stakeholders in the hospitality industry and the impact that the internet advertising potentials have had on travel. The starting line question asks about the ch anges that have been made in relationship to the hospitality industry through internet advertising and will be answered through statistical inquiry as well as anecdotal information on the topic. Secondary research will provide answers as to how the hospitality industry is before long using the internet for expanding their opportunities with consumers.

Life after death in Ancient Egypt Research Paper

Life subsequently death in Ancient Egypt - Research Paper ExampleAdmittedly, antique Egyptians were afraid of death and could however imagine what happened in their afterlives Except in imaginative tales, no one had ever come bear out to tell of it (qtd. in Bricker 99). Therefore, ancient Egyptians beliefs about life after death deserve special attention. In the first place, it is worth considering ancient Egyptians attitude towards death. On one hand, people were afraid of death. Many write works suggest that people regarded it as an enemy from which there was no escape, regardless of each(prenominal) preparations (Hodel-Hoenes and Warburton 26). Everyone, be it a pharaoh or a ugly, eventually dies. Thus, death was also regarded as something inevitable. This was, perhaps, one of the reasons why ancient Egyptians respected it so much. There was even The Book of the Dead which was a guideline that depicted all obligatory operations to enable diseased to enter the other world a nd start their afterlife (Hodel-Hoenes and Warburton 25). The keep was concerned with practical help and magical assistance for the hereafter it was not a simple verbal description (Hornung and Lorton 17). Death was regarded as a turning point where people trans public figureed and began their existence in a new form in another world. It is important to point out that ancient Egyptians ideas about the form of the afterlife are quite complex. Thus, there is no certain word in the ancient Egyptian language which reveals the idea of the modern concept of soul (Pinch 147). In ancient times Egyptians believed that several components of a person usually survived death (Pinch 147). The major component was the ka, a persons vital enduringness which was usually depicted as a double and dying was described as joining your ka (Pinch 147). The ka was about connected with homophile body, and mummification was aimed at preserving ones body for the ka to return to the body for a more complete union (Pinch 147). Mummification is worth special attention since it was essential for successful afterlife. Cunningham and Reich vociferation that mummification is a reflection of the most striking aspect of Egyptian religious thought, i.e. its arrested development with immortality (11). However, James Henry Breasted found quite an interesting explanation for the existence of such beliefs and popularity of mummification. He claims This insistent belief in a hereafter may perhaps have been greatly raise and influenced by the fact that the conditions of soil and climate resulted in such a remarkable preservation of the human body as may be found under natural conditions nowhere else in the world. (Breasted 49) Thus, the constitution itself influenced the beliefs of ancient Egyptians who worked out certain techniques to preserve human body. It goes without saying that elite had more elaborate funeral than poor people did. However, it is important to note that all people were to be buried in accordance with the necessary rituals. More so, there was even a law of nature concerning people dying in the Nile. According to this law all people, irrespective of their social status and wealth, be it an Egyptian or a foreigner, who died in the Nile (even if the person was unidentified) should be buried by the inhabitants of the city and all the necessary rituals should be carried out (Chan et al. 2032). This precision is repayable to the beliefs that deceased who

Critically review how the management of quality has changed over the Essay

Critically review how the management of quality has changed over the last century - raise ExampleWith the creation of this new department, there came new services and issues, e.g. standards, training, recording of data and the accuracy of bill equipment (the UK Government department of Quality and Industry 2005). It is obvious that the duties of this chief inspector were laying in something more than than just an acceptance of goods. Thus a defect prevention practice appeared to be required.The 1920s was the stay when statistical methods efficiently merged into quality control practice, and it was in 1924 when Shewhart created the first outline of a seasonable chart for quality control. Thus his investigations and the work of the followers of this practice represented a great aggregate of what involved the up-to-date theory of statistical process control. Nevertheless this practice was hardly applied in manufacturing companies until the late 1940s (Ackoff 1993).It is well known that it was the time when industrial system of japan was actually collapsed, and it was infamously well-known because of cheap counterfeit of goods and an ignorant illiterate labor force. Fortunately the Japanese identified these problems and entered upon solving them in time (Connor 1997).In the beginning of the 1950s quality management quickly occupied a sufficient place in Japanese manufacturing business and came into essential play in management philosophy of Japan in such a way that by the 1960s quality management had taken a place of national bias. As a result by the end of 1960s Japans imports in europium and the USA surged noticeably, first of all because of its cheaper, higher quality products, compared to the Western counterparts (Dooyoung, S., Kalinowski J. G. & El-Enein, G. A. 1998).In 1969 the first cross-border conference on quality control management supported by Japan, The USA and Europe was carried out in Tokyo. A mind appeared that quality control management in Japan even differ from that one in other countries as it was company wide quality control with all the working team from a worker to the top manager taking considerable part in the process (The UK Government Department of Quality and Industry 2005).This type of management characterized Japanese companies by the end of the1970s. Although supporting of this tendency in the West began later, nearly in the 1980s, when western companies proposed their own quality policies, concepts and ideas in order to compete and come about Japan. Total quality management (TQM) became the centre of these drives in most cases (Giroux, H. & Landry, S. 1998).In the light of intensive orbiculate

Managerial Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managerial Accounting - Essay ExampleThese rates of return methodologies atomic number 18 vital in terms of the measurement of financial performance, assessment of the risk and desirability of certain projects. Also the monitoring of a certain specific project performance. There are two vital rates of return concepts. The stinting rate of return and the Accounting rate of return. Both of these rates of returns play a vital theatrical role in terms of an investment appraisal .now, to measure the economic performance of an investment we enquire to be aware of its Real rate of return of the finished project. Herein all Cash receipts are expressed in terms of m whizztary units which hold equal purchasing power. This theory is what provides base to the interest value of a future performance. The present value of the expected cash flow of the project, discounted appropriately. differential coefficient outline is considered an preference to the traditional income statement format. Pri cing decisions are made using the differential analysis methodology. If organizations take hold differential analysis to pricing, then every price given for a product is considered as the alternative course of action. The fixed be however will remain the same in between .The take on of all organizations in the process of selecting an appropriate price is where aggregate future revenues will exceed total future costs.DifDifferential analysis is done at various levels to assess, product pricing, project viability etc. All costs cannot be considered to be a part. The decision making only includes the future revenue. These future revenues tend to as well as differ .Management does not possess the capability of altering all of its past decisions. But on the another(prenominal) hand it is capable of changing its future decisions, by setting up its future costs with care. Differential costs are also known, and often times referred to as or incremental costs. It is also comprehended as the difference in the total cost which occurs due to a change in charge .It is considered as the increase or the decrease in total cost. It is calculated mathematically, by subtracting the cost of one alternative from the cost of another alternative. This alternative choice can be arrived at by a change in method of production, in sales volume, change in product mix, make or buy decisions, take or refuse decisions etc. Capital Investment AnalysisAll businesses need pileus to keep operations running. Capital is required to finance investments in inventory, plant and machinery, accounts receivables etc. financial managers also must decide how their companies should raise capital. Capital investment means, the amount that the owner can invest, in order to initiate the business. These are what he can provide for, from his personal resources, or any additive amounts. The owner of the business is the one, who is liable of all debts and liabilities to the business The Capital invest ment decisions are very of import along with being complicated. They involve qualitative factors that are not easy to comprehend during the analysis. And so there are various calculating methods to analyze the capital investment of an individual business. A meaningful capital investment

The Epic of Gilgamesh Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

The Epic of Gilgamesh - Essay ExampleGilgamesh basically describes the reason as to how and why Gilgamesh was thought of as a role model for the coming classic poems of the time. It has brought to the notice the beauty tangents and the place of the relationship that Gilgamesh and Enkidu had among them. Within the Epic of Gilgamesh, the bond which was demonstrated between Gilgamesh and Enkidu is distinctive in its own right. The reason for this is that the cardinal an adversarial relationship with one another. Being a fable of love and that too in its truest form, Gilgamesh is an epic without a shadow of a doubt. It has involved lingering grief which has caused pivotal changes to take place within his character. Gilgamesh is a story of a person who is both respected as well as feared at the like time. He loves and shows hatred he is one person who lives life to the maximum possible levels. Even though Gilgameshs voyage is larger than life, yet somehow or the other it ends up with death. The fate of gentleman is exposed through Gilgamesh and thus the undeniable factor of change gets its manifestation as well. Gilgamesh exhibited true power before the arrival of Enkidu (Kovacs 1989). There was no other human being who had equal match when it came to Gilgamesh himself. He showed his personal liking to glory and power and the best part was that he boasted with regards to the very same. He mistreat power in addition to showing off his attitude (and arrogance). The city of Uruk went into a state of outrage and people were ferocious all round. However Gilgamesh did not mend his ways and continue to display his exasperation and power to all and sundry. It was after the death of Enkidu that Gilgamesh tried his levels best to explore the ways to reach immortality as he attempted to cross the ocean. He wanted to find the same in a beauteous dire fashion. He did his best to carve out a life which had immortality written all all over it. He continued with his exped ition in an out and out fashion. His state of being like this was in essence entirely different from the arrogance that he showed at the starting of the epic itself. Thus he transformed into a scary person more than anything else. Also the slain of Humbaba changed Gilgamesh in entirety (Foster 2005). Since Humbaba was considered immoral right from the onset, a number of people who were residents of Uruk started to fear Gilgamesh. Some people would reckon that Gilgamesh himself is a design of evil but then again there could be debates in the wake of such a proposition. The fact that he used to have sex with the virgins, going about doing things on his and offending the gods at his own free will is a manifestation of what his personality was in essence. Gilgamesh was able to pen his urinate as a successful hero. However the price he had to pay for it is something totally different. Much could be written about the very same.The amount of loss and suffering which was eventually put d own on the part of the people, perhaps he could have made an effort to turn things around and do something different. As a matter of fact, Gilgamesh and his brother were able to achieve what the rest of the people could not even regard of in those times. Gilgamesh and Enkidu were able to capture the world under their feet but the untimely death of Enkidu changed everything. Gilgamesh started to understand that he was just a human

Can terrorism ever be morally justified Research Paper

spate terrorism ever be morally justified - Research Paper ExampleThe demands could be socio-economic or political. According to Igor Primoratz, terrorism can be defined as The deliberate use of violence, or holy terror of its use, against innocent people, with the aim of intimidating some other people into a course of action they otherwise would not take (Primoratz, 2011). These definitions however, form more of a general perspective to this whole idea, are plainly unsatisfactory. They dont delve into the root cause and what the ultimate objectives are behind these motives, but rather focus on what is done. The issue in its entirety is far more subtle.Virtually, in every historical era and society, there have been extremists who have used terror as their tactics to advance their cause. Of thousands of such groups that exist or have existed, the validity of their cause is often questioned. However, one element has remained consistent passim the time, and that is their belief of being denied all the resources and opportunity to advance their cause through conventional means and that terrorism is the only way to voice their concerns and give them relief (Vague, 2007).Some studies suggest that poverty and ones perception of unfairness and moral debauchery of Western capitalism play an integral part in forming these terrorists. Not only because they have had no other means to make their opinions heard, but also to draw their hopelessness and frustration towards their oppressors.

Using Social Psychology as an Informed Clinician Essay

Using Social Psychology as an Informed Clinician - Essay ExampleFor most psychologists who study seen patterns of miens, making conclusions regarding their hypotheses may be easy with the knowledge derived from research. Such knowledge may be in truth helpful to counselors and clinicians in understanding client problems, as these are backed up by intensifier study.What is the effect of people on other people? How do various situations affect human behavior? These are questions psychological researchers experience attempted to answer in the past decades. Subjects ranged from young children to very rare people. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) have explored how children respond to aggressive models and have concluded that such models greatly influence childrens aggressive behaviors. In the absence of supervision that may hinder the natural behavior of children, those exposed to aggression use their observations of aggression to a bobo doll. Clinicians may use this nurture to inform their clients how powerful their behaviors are in influencing their childrens behavioral and personality development. Aggression is not the only thing that children can imitate from adults. Expressions, mannerisms, behaviors, value systems, and a whole lot more may readily be absorbed by children as some(prenominal) as aggressive behaviors discussed in Bandura et als study. Clinicians involved in the therapy of children can use this information to guide parents to be good role models to their children. Likewise, children exhibiting unlikely adult behaviors may be probed on how adults most them have been influencing their behaviors. Sessions with those adults, then, may be arranged too.Consciously or not, other peoples behaviors have an effect on ours. People subjected to intimidation may readily yield to pressure. The classic experiment of Stanley Milgram (1963) on obedience is one study that has created much controversy in the science of Psychology. The uncomfortable experimental

WEEK5 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

WEEK5 - Research Paper ExampleThis work will be illuminating the lofty exchanges troopsship.Salespersons make a part of daily life as they often approach us, or they break through almost everywhere around us be it in the offices, at home, shopping malls or point at commercial eateries. This explains why I impart interacted with an uncountable number of them, all portraying different, sometimes contradicting features.However, from this infinite number, I could rank them all ranging from the most unpleasant to the most pleasant. Though my experience with most sale persons has never been entirely pleasant, I can at least pick the trump out performer of them. This happened to be a direct sales representative in a bank, who helped me into having my first bank account disdain having been totally ignorant in this field. Calm in demeanor and direct in his words, this man was trusted of everything he was telling me. He took me through each account type and advised me on the best of t hem to choose, later leaving me to make my personal decision. A few years after when I inevitable to change my account type, this same man gave me advice and I have never been regretful to date.I happened to have one most remarkably unpleasant experience with a salesperson in one of the roving service provider companies in my country. Mobile phone accessories were on sale in this occurrence. The event having been a road show, almost every feature of it had been annoying except for how well persuasive he was that he managed to entice me into his ideas. To participate into their promotion, one had to make a deposit of some cash, and then get depute a t-shirt to recognize them as a member there-of. One alarming action was how this man pressurized me into giving him this cash into his hand. I view this as inappropriate because a customer should do everything volitionally without feeling coerced. I later picked from scattered pieces of paper, only to be told

Solutions to Stress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Solutions to Stress - Essay ExampleSome people develop socio-psychological problems, resulting in low confidence and low adjustment within the given paradigm. Thus, stress is the emotional instability in the face of adverse situations.Stress can be b trackly defined as the adverse reception people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed upon them (HSE, 2001). The more contemporary and scientifically accepted definition recognizes stress as the perceived pressure that exceeds ones ability to lie with within the pre-defined socio-psychological parameters (Palmer, Cooper & Thomas, 2006). The cognitive reality of stress has different direct of adjustment and therefore, stress level of every someone is different.Stress is often perceived as an act of defense against an imagined or essential injustice or threat or it may be an expression of frustration for ones own inability to face certain situations of feel in a manner that would effectively still pain. The div ersity of reasons may be attri moreovered to stress that may result in harming others or oneself because a person loses his ability of objectivity and rationale when he or she is under stress. Hence, stress is not good for our offbeat and needs to be rationalized to find its root cause and thereby find best measures to control it.The psychological well being is important part of healthy life. Life is not a smooth road and the various obstacles in ones life may or may not beseem countless reasons for people to have emotional stress. The traumatic events, the unexpected changes in our personal and professional life or even small things that may not be to our liking may constitute reasons for stress. Insecurities in life may also become key factors for stress. Sometimes, the reason cannot be attributed to one single entity but may be a result of accumulated events or adverse situations that could have reached the limit of

Heaney Digging or Frost The Road Not Taken Essay

Heaney Digging or frosting The Road Not Taken - Essay ExampleLife is a journey where every mature is a major turning point. One decision can make or break a bearing-long expedition. Life is influenced so much by eon and like what Frost stated in the counterbalance stanza of his poem, it is such a disappointment that one cannot travel a certain path and knows exactly what would witness through its journey there. on that point are other factors that should be taken into consideration like the time and opportunity that is presented at a given situation. One can consider the possible pros and cons that might slip by during the circumstances. Things whitethorn present to be more than appealing at the first sight but may have complex hurdles along the way which the person would not know how to overcome it unless it is already right under his nose (10).Frost put into metaphor a persons life and a travelers journey to an unknown place. It would be a pity not to seek ideas at the sa me time to know the beauty and the consequences that life or the journey may bring. There are roads or opportunities which may present itself as a totally disastrous offspring yet at the onset yet as one goes through this path, the more fulfilling it is becoming for the person. This is unremarkably the road not taken especially in recent years as more and more people would choose the easier path that may bring instant gratification rather than the one which may need time before gathering any form of fulfillment. Others may decide towards the road because of status-quo, it is unspoilt like ordering the usual at a fast-food chain at the corner of the street. There is no adventure in it and simply represents a routine (10).On the third stanza of the poem, Frost gave an example as to what may one thinks if there are two ideas presented having an identical onset presentation. However, these ideas may have and allow have different path struggles which may incur various outcomes. One c annot go back to the get-go point and take the

Walmart Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Walmart - Assignment ExampleThis is mainly referable to the beneath stated pointsFlexibility in cost- in remote areas, the stores of Wal-Mart desire to offer discounted prices in various products. As a result of which, a wide range of customers of varied living standards and life styles might entranceway its products and services to a certain extent. Due to which, the image and supremacy of Wal-Mart enhanced thereby amplifying its positiveness and reliability. full range of products- in sound out to attain economies of scale, the organization of Wal-Mart desired to offer extremely trendy and groovy products to its customers. As a result of which, the level of trust and loyalty of the customers increased that improved its supremacy and mart value to a certain extent.Good relationship with the suppliers- due to good relationship with the suppliers, the organization of Wal-Mart became happy in attaining its products very quickly at any part of the world. Due to which, the level of trust and torso of the customers over this brand enhanced significantly that improved its level of sustainability.Every day low price (EDLP) - every day low price is one of the most important strategies that helped Wal-Mart to attain its reputation and popularity in the market among other rival players. This type of pricing strategy enhanced the demand of the customers that amplified its total profitability to a significant extent (Mathews, 467-488).In order to enhance the market share and reputation in the market, Wal-Mart is trying to implement the strategy of opening neighborhood stores as new formats. This is done in order to evaluate the transferability of competitive advantage of the organization of Wal-Mart among other rival players in this market.Data mining facility- due to the facility of information technology (IT), the processes of the organization of Wal-Mart became extremely easier and quicker. This helped to increase the demand of the customers thereby

Platonic Philosophy in Contemporary Culture Essay

Platonic Philosophy in modern-day Culture - Essay ExampleAs a philosopher, Socrates was afraid that subjectivity and skeptic beliefs that were prevalent in the society would undermine the ethical construct of recent people (Plato 161). As a response, Socrates differed with the ruling class, and respectively portrayed his vision of ethics. In Platos dialogue, detailed elaboration of Socrates philosophic education is portrayed through contextual analogies, specifically in the analogy of warrior guardians.Observably, Socrates separates motivation and desires into three distinct groups appetitive desires like provoke and money, spiritual desires like honor, and rational desires like mark knowledge and truth. In practical contexts, independent by-line for these three desires often overlaps with each other (Lindsey and Wyse 70). In the context of philosophical education, Socrates mentioned that an overlap occurs when the pursuit for objective knowledge overlap with that of appetiti ve desires and lusts like sex. In his warrior guardians analogy, Socrates discredits that erotic attraction and relationship between a boy and a man. According to Socrates, A mutual attraction and love between a boy and a man is necessary for objective education to materialize (Plato 206). Apparently, heightened senses of love motivate a young learner to pursue knowledge with the help of his older teacher. However, sexual desires occasionally infiltrates into the boy-man relationship in philosophical education. Plato mentioned that when pure love is transformed into an erotic love, the intended purpose of an educational relationship fails. This is more so when erotic love is homosexual in nature.In this context, it emerged that erotic homosexual desires are not simply selfish but also unethical. According to Socrates, erotic heterosexual desires are ethical and natural because they whizz to procreation. However, Socrates mentioned that homosexual acts are purely useless

Is our Education System Failing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Is our Education System Failing - Essay ExampleResearch designate facems to indicate the problem may be one of inappropriate measurement methods however, a more exposit examination of American lower-ranking schools indicates that although measurement methods might negatively affect our estimates slightly how much full(prenominal) schools are failing students, an underlying problem still exists and it needs to be corrected. This underlying problem with secondary schools is one that revolves around the concept of accountability, and a number of issues emerge from unaccountable schools. An important consideration to occupy when considering the success or failure of American secondary schools is the statistics involved with either side of the argument. A step rate is a good indicator of whether a specific school is successfully educating and preparing its students. Therefore, it is essential to see whether the statistical measurements of graduation are actually correct or non. S wanson (analyzes American graduation rates across the country, and offers a resource for better evaluating and measuring the graduation crisis. The analysis levels to a clear role for state-supported policy in improving the conditions and environmental portion in which American secondary schools operate. An important event of this is that the findings here do tell us that there is a strong and very detrimental linkage between graduation rates and the environmental conditions that go along with factors like poverty and segregation (Swanson, 2003, p. 35). Accordingly, the origin of this report is convinced that incorrect concepts of graduation rates leads to incorrect views (and incorrect solutions) of the educational crisis. That is, by identifying the environmental circumstances surrounding failing schools, officials can be better prepared with better knowledge about how to fix the problem. However, ascribing poor graduation rates to environmental circumstances (such as pover ty and segregation) is a point of view that moves responsibility for failings away from the schools themselves. Swanson (2003) is suggesting that the only solutions to the graduation crisis can only come from successful interventions, which implies that midland changes to schools is not an effective strategy. But studies such as Chiang (2009) indicate that accountability pressure, which is defined as the terror of sanctions on low-performing schools, is not an effective tool when schools are able to manipulate the accountability system. Referencing claims like those do by Swanson (2003), Chiang (2009) argues that accountability systems within schools properly constructed and maintained make educational reforms more likely to let test score gains. So, even if in fact American secondary schools are failing their students in terms of the students long-term benefits, improve accountability systems within schools will lessen the impact of environmental circumstances that decrease st udent performance. For instance, in some cases, sanction threats prompted schools to increase spending on instructional technology, which improved student performance. Knowing that accountability is the best solution for making sure secondary schools do not fail their students, one might compare that result with additional studies where accountability is a problem

Communication Opinion Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Communication Opinion Paper - Essay Examplewriting neatly and clearly, organizing the points to unbosom their flow and understanding, having an eye get in touch with, by means of proper grammar and passing tried center are the essentials needed to rough-and-readyly pass a message. The sender should have an understanding of the pass catcher so as to modify the message and to make it more relevant.The telephone receiver is the individual to whom the sender transmits the message. The recipient crowd out also exchange a few conditions verbally and nonverbally. The most excellent and effective way to receive a message is to listen carefully, sitting upright and making eye contact. mavin should avoid getting distracted or trying to do something else while listening. Nodding or in good spirits as you pay attention to the correspondent address show that you comprehend the convey being send to you.The message is send to the receiver in different forms such forms are, by word of mouth staging, a written paper, an commercial or just a observations. For effective communication to mesh place, the correspondent must not only compile the point cautiously, nevertheless also weigh up the way in which then message can be interpreted.It is through the channel of communication that message travels from one point to another. Every channel of communication has some advantages and disadvantages. For instant, one particular shortcoming of row in black and white, on a central processing unit screen or in a manuscript, is that the recipient cannot weigh up the nature of the point. Intended for effective communication, word written communication theory are used so they dont rely on a specific shade of voice to convey the message accurately. The advantage of television as a channel for communication is that reaches a wide audience and the senders ability to further manipulate the message using change and special effects.The feedback describes the receivers response or reacti on to the senders massage. The receiver can pass the feedback by asking

The Vigilance Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

The Vigilance Project - Essay shellBeing in a group, an individual feels as integral part of a team which enhances his or her self-worth.4. Realistic is conflict based on scarce resources symbolic conflict is conflict based on values and beliefs. Realist conflicts take place between groups over scarce resources in a competitive environment. emblematical conflicts occur due to different perspectives regarding values and ideas which give rise to conflicts in goal persuasion.5.The leadership riddle is best stated as The fact that teams usually need leaders, but the very presence of a leader threatens the autonomy of a team. Instead of making a team more(prenominal) productive, a leader may end up being a hindrance if he overuses his power (Thomson, 2004, p.309).6.The trine types of team train include ability, coordination, motivation. Motivation enhances team commitment, coordination helps people to work together, and educational coaching increases skills and abilities of team memb ers (Levi, 2010, p.178).7.Teams that argon underbounded Have many external ties, but cannot bring its members together in contrast, teams that are overbounded have high loyalty but an inability to integrate with others. Overbounded teams are highly cohesive and so members can work in more coordinated manner than underbounded teams (Hackman, 2011, p.79).11.According to the empirical research on convergent and divergent thinking, Groups are better than individuals at divergent thinking individuals are better than groups at convergent thinking. This is because in the former effort is to find single solution to a riddle while in the latter effort is to find multiple solutions to a problems which can be more effective in a group (Salkind, 2005, p.309).12.The key threats to creativity include all of the following, except societal striving. Social striving means individuals can exhibit maximum performance when working as part of a group, and this can enhance

Education the New Form of Segregation Assignment

Education the New Form of Segregation - Assignment ExampleThe concession Education the New Form of Segregation analyzes the article A Future Segregated By cognition? The Opinion Pages by M.C. Blow. Blow in his article suggests that there is a new emerging parametric quantity under which the American society is being divided based on science and STEM-based education and employment.The beginning directs our attention to the development and progress of historical injustices such as economic disenfranchisement of the African Americans. The article presents irrefutable facts such as the chronology of the growth of the STEM jobs in the coming decade. The projection of the growth of STEM jobs is more(prenominal) impending than non-STEM jobs. The main strength of the article is the statistical evidence. Blow systematic tout ensembley explored the data presented from credible institutions such as the national math and science initiative and the USA today. He assesses the admission and interest that glowering and monitories have in STEM-related courses and subjects. The research in the article shows that the black population receives about 7% of all STEM-related bachelors degrees and even lower number of these professions gets hired. About 6% blacks and other minorities such as Hispanics hold STEM jobs in most of the prestigious companies and leading institutions. The weakness in the article is that the object of the author fails to offer a solution on how best to improve on diversity in the workplace. Blow compares gainful employment to access the achievements of the black race and other minorities.

Johnson & Johnson Diversity Plan Essay Example for Free

Johnson Johnson variety show Plan EssayJohnson Johnson was formed in 1885 in Brunswick, New Jersey, later two brothers, James woods and Edward Mead Johnson saw a need to develop unfertilized supplies for surgical procedures. During that time, doctors operated without gloves, sterile equipment and used unclean cotton from textile mills to pack the wounds so the mortality rate for surgical patients was very high. One of the first results Johnson Johnson developed was ready to use surgical dressings which to led to large decline in surgical mortality rates. Johnson Johnson continued developing and expanding their product line and their company.In 1919, Johnson Johnson began their first foreign expansion. The brothers first expanded into Canada and after an or so the world trip in 1923 began to develop commercial enterprise in many more countries. They expanded into Australia in 1931, Sweden in 1956 and Japan in 1961 (Johnson Johnson, 1997-2007). Over the next 60 yea rs, Johnson Johnson had established companies in over 50 countries.During their international expansion, Johnson Johnson also diversified their product line. They eventually nonionised their operations into three main divisions pharmaceutical, medical devices and diagnostics, and consumer products (Answers Corporation, 2007). They became well kn make for the talcum powder, band-aids and the pain reliever, Tylenol. In 1932, Robert Wood Johnson II, known as General Johnson succeeded his uncle to take over running Johnson Johnson. The General believed strongly in decentalisation within the entire governing and all the divisions both in the United States and internationally were given means to make their own decisions.The General was also responsible for developing the Johnson Johnson religious doctrine in 1943 and it is quiesce in force today. The credo is defines the four primary responsibilities of the organization in their order of their importance. Johnson Johnsons first responsibility is to its customers, so to its employees, then to the biotic community, and finally to its shareholders (Lukas, 2003). Believing and enforcing in this credo is what has made this organization what it is today and helped Johnson Johnson overcome wizard of the most critical times in its history when it dealt withthe Tylenol poisonings. The first priority of Johnson Johnson was then and is still today the safety of its consumers.Johnson Johnson believes in multifariousness of its organization, its product line and its vendors. The organization has both an Office of globular Diversity as well as a supplier mutation chopine (Johnson Johnson, 1997-2007). They believe further diversity increases both their economic prosperity as well as benefiting each social community where they are located. By encouraging diversity by with(predicate)out its entire organization, Johnson Johnson has become one of the largest global wellness care attractors in the world.Will iam C. Weldon, Chairman, Board of Directors and Chief Executive Officer for Johnson and Johnson sets a clear mannikin for the diversity action plan for the company. He states in his Chairmans Message on the JJ website, how the company interacts with a divers(a) group of stakeholders daily and how both internal and external partnerships allow the company to more than it could on its own. With that in mind the company must create a Diversity Action Plan that allows employees to grow, develop and dramatize more responsibility, creating extraordinary leading in the business sectors around the world (JJ.com).Cultural NormsJJ is committed to having its own operating companies purchase goods and services from a diverse supplier base that contributes to the economic vitality of the communities in which we choke and work. To achieve this goal JJ has created a Supplier Diversity Program in 1998. The intent of this program is to provide value to the company and to enhance the companys rol e as a health care leader throughout the world. The included in the program areCertified minority-owned businesses, beautiful and largeCertified woman-owned businesses, small and largeCertified Small Disadvantaged BusinessesSmall veteran-owned and service disabled veteran-owned businessesSmall, certified HUBZone businessesThe HUBZone Empowerment undertake program provides federal contracting opportunities for qualified small businesses located in distressed areas. Fostering the development of these federal contractors as viable businesses, for the long term, helps to empower communities, create jobs, and attract private investment(SBA.gov). other area the company attempts to enhance its image both in the US and around the world is through the development of Standards for Responsible External Manufacturing. These were developed to ensure the companies who do business with the company meet the alike high standards of ethical behavior, product gauge, and social responsibility pract iced by JJ. There has to be harsh commitment tocomply with applicable legal requirements,be founder ethically and with integrity,integrate quality into business processes, work people with dignity and respect,promote the safety, health and well-being of employees,operate in an environmentally responsible manner, and lend oneself management systems to ensure ongoing performance and continual improvement (JJ, 2006)These values and practices are determined through a vigorous benchmarking process for which any potential manufacturing partner must meet before turn associated with the JJ Family of Companies. There is a two-fold advantage to this process. The first is it allows potential partners the opportunity to understand the values that drive the organization as well as providing them with a template for the sustainability the JJ Company has demonstrated. In addition, the high standards set by the company are not compromised by external manufacturing partners that could damage the J J image.To maximize their diverse workforce, the company has a vision statement in place that allows the company to maximize the benefits. The following is the companys vision statementThe Johnson Johnson Family of Companies testament realize this vision byFostering inclusive cultures that embrace our differences and drive innovation to accelerate outgrowthAchieving skilled, high performance workforces that are reflective of the diverse global marketplaceWorking with business leaders to identify and establish targeted market opportunities for consumers across diverse demographic segments andCultivating external relationships with professional, patient and civic groups to advocate business priorities.The statement allows the diverse workforce by utilizing the vision statement by including the companys belief ( religious doctrine). The credo, Latin for I believe,guides the company to the responsibilities as they relate to customers, employees, community and shareholders. The respo nsibilities are as followsTo our customers we will embrace diversity in order to respect, understand and meet their varying health care needs.To our employees we will ensure a diverse and inclusive workplace, offer merit-based opportunities for employment and advancement and provide the necessary resources to develop our next generation of leaders.To our communities we will recognize opportunities to improve economic and human health care in the areas in which we live and work.To our shareholders we will oppose acts of intolerance and be mindful of the positive impact that diversity and inclusion have on our businesses.JJ over the years has continuously looked toward engine room to play key role in JJs strategical initiatives. The different approaches to productivity have varied throughout the years. umteen factors contribute to the productivity and success of the JJ Company. engine room has played an important role in JJs ability to remain competitive and to continuously innova te. It is through technology that JJs management team is able to refine processes, collaborate, innovate, and increase the productivity of the organization in todays dynamic business environment that is changing continuously.The success of these companies is attributed to all the fortunate mergers and acquisitions that have taken place throughout JJ history. Many of these companies were sensory(a)ed due to successful mergers that allowed JJ to develop new products and offer them in different markets throughout the world. The successful organization of the products JJ offers allows JJ to successfully merge with other companies to gain additional control over the industry.The result of this Credo is a healthy bottom line that is socially responsible. JJ history of philanthropy through partnering with othercompanies from around the world has created programs dedicated to providing needed services over the long term. JJ does not have a relegating statement because the ethical principa ls listed in the Credo drive the company. The customer first philosophy insures the needs of the customer are met. Another principal outlined in the Credo is the dedication to producing a high quality product. Through this set of values the company has developed a trust with the consumers of their products. Trust develops into a personality of integrity that in turn provides the company with a basis for business strategies. This ethical high bridle-path approach is a proven winner in this function.Problem solving involves many departments and many steps. engine room plays an integral part in JJs ability to innovate, perform research and development, and manage the logistics associated with the distribution of a product during the products lifecycle.JJ defines diversity as a variety of similar and different characteristics among people, including age, gender, race, religion, national origin, physical ability, sexual orientation, persuasion style, background and all other attribute s that make each person unique. Although some differences may not be obvious as others, Johnson Johnson strives to understand and remove barriers that one may face due to these differences. Johnson Johnson utilizes these differences to create a working environment where their employees can thrive. JJ believes that diversity helps the interaction between people as well as inspiring innovation.JJ is committed to the practice of their global diversity vision which they use to identify their key, future objectives piece guiding the fulfillment of their commitments to their customers, employees, the global community and their shareholders. Johnson Johnson supports various educational opportunities such as Diversity University and relation Groups. JJs Diversity University provides an internal, full range of Diversity e-learning courses, diversity best practice information, and is a comprehensive diversity resource and database for employees. Affinity Groups are voluntary, employee-dr iven groups that are organized around a particularshared kindle or dimension. These groups have been initiated by employees and usually focus on a shared interest or characteristic, such as race, ethnicity, gender or sexual orientation. Each groups main intent is to create an open forum for idea exchange and to strengthen the linkage to and within diverse communities.The successful leadership of the workers and the restless safety decisions that have had to be made, for example the recall of 264,000 bottles of Tylenol in 1982 and then a fleck recall in 1986, have made JJ a reputable name that many have handsome to know and trust.ReferencesAnswers Corporations. 2007. Johnson Johnson. Retrieved June 27, 2007 from http//www.answers.com/topic/johnson-johnson?cat=biz-finJohnson Johnson. Global Diversity Its All of Us. Retrieved June 30, 2007 fromhttp//www.jnj.com/our_company/diversity/index.htmjsessionid=EGT3V0ZLGAFE0CQPCCFWU2YKB2IIWTT1Johnson Johnson (2007). Supplier Diversity P rogram. Retrieved July 2, 2007 from httpwww.jnj.comJohnson Johnson (2006). Sustainability Report. Retrieved July 4, 2007 from httpwww.jnj.comJohnson Johnson. 1997-2007. Our Company. Retrieved June 26, 2007 fromhttp//www.jnj.com/our_company/index.htmLeading with Diversity The New York Times. Retrieved June 29, 2007 fromwww.nytimes.com/marketing/jobmarket/diversity/jandj.htmlLukas, P. (2003, April). Johnson Johnson. FSB Fortune Small Business. Vol.13, Iss. 3 pg. 91. Retrieved June 26, 2007 from ProQuest database.SBA.gov (2007). HUBZone Empowerment Contracting program. Retrieved July 5, 2007 from https//eweb1.sba.gov/hubzone/ meshing/general/whoweare.cfm3The Diversity Vision Statement, Retrieved 06/29/07 fromhttp//www.jnj.com/our_company/diversity/diversity_vision/index.htmThe company Credo, Retrieved on 06/29/07 fromhttp//www.jnj.com/our_company/diversity/credo/index.htm

Time Management Essay Example for Free

Time Management Es enounceStudy regulateing to live wherefore university students balance full- while study and employment According to Valerie Holmes, within this group 83 per cent of students operationed at some point during term- time of their degree programmed. In total 58 per cent of those students who get toed did so to either conceal or contri exclusivelye to basic costs of living. While the majority of students felt they could balance work and study, fractional of all in all students questioned felt that works could have a negative squeeze on their degree classification. Valerie Holmes, (2008) Working to live Why university students balance regular study and employment, Education + Training, Vol. 50 Iss 4, pp.305 314http//www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1728331 The workstudy kin lets of fulltime university students undertaking parttime employment Journal of Education and Work pot 23, furnish 5, 2010Ralph Halla*Pages 439-449Publishing models a nd article dates explainedReceived 21 Apr 2010Accepted 14 Jul 2010Version of record primary published 29 Nov 2010AbstractWork and study commitments of fulltime undergraduate students at the University of red-hot South Wales were investigated in four surveys conducted in 1994, 1999, 2006 and 2009. Respondents to the surveys reported the get along of time they spent during term time in paid employment, studying outside of formal class hours and in leisure activities (1999 and 2006 only when). Fifty fulltime students in 2006 and 37 in 2009 who were identified through the survey as workings in excess of 10 hours per hebdomad were interviewed about their work and study relationships. Findings atomic number 18 consistent with UK studies showing an join on in parttime work by fulltime students. In addition, a strong decrease was found in hours of study outside normal class time and in time spent in leisure activities.Reasons for working offered by interviewees were predominantly fi nancial although more than than reported that gaining work experience, unconstipated in areas non related to their studies, was an important consideration. While some of the students interviewed felt that the government should appropriate more(prenominal) support for fulltime students, the majority thought that the university should cater more for the needs of working students by providing more online facilities for assignment submission and communication and more flexible timetables and submission requirements. In the absence seizure of any likely moves by governments to provide financial support to students, universities need to recognize the increasing demands located on fulltime students by parttime work and to implement procedures to assist working students. http//www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjew20LiteratureMore students balance school with jobsBy Jacob Serebrin January 25th, 2012 More than half of full-time university students in Quebec work while attending school and m ore than 40 per cent of all undergraduates work more than 20 hours weekly says a new study by the Fdration tudiante universitaire du Qubec, a provincial lobby group that wants lower tuition. On top of that, more than twice as some(prenominal) full-time students aged 20 to 24 in the province work part-time jobs than students did in the 1970s. The workloads are painful sensation their educations 43 per cent of full-time undergraduates say that their jobs have negatively affected their studies and 30 per cent say their jobs mean theyll take presbyopicer to finish. Its worst for PhD studentssix in 10 say work forced them to prolong their studies. Its non just students in Quebec who are putting in long hours between classes. According to the 2011 Canadian University Survey Consortium study 56 per cent of undergraduates in Canada work. The come number of hours is 18 per week.Nearly a fifth (18 per cent) work more than 30 hours weekly. One trine of working students report a negative impact on their faculty memberian performance. The latest research withal builds on a November 2010 report put out by FUQ that said employment income accounts for more than 50 per cent of the average full-time students income in Quebec. Predictably, FUQ is using the results of twain studies to argue against a tuition increase that will take mental picture this fall. The hike will suck in tuition for in-province students rise by $325 a year to $3,793 in 2016. Its well to dismiss FUQs concernsthe province has the lowest fees in the country.But the fact that so many students are working so much suggests many are already at the breaking point. It likewise rebuts the claim by Quebec politicians that the increase would return tuition to 1968-9 levels, adjusted for inflation, which is what finance minister Raymond Backhand told the discipline Assembly. The claim that todays students are paying slight than past students has also been a darling of the Conference of Rectors and Pr incipals of Quebec Universities, which represents administrators. Perhaps tuition was indeed more expensive in the 1968-9s. But in the 1970s, students could give in to work slight in coffee shops and clothing storesand more on their studiesthan students of today.http//oncampus.macleans.ca/education/2012/01/25/more-students- equilibrate-school-and-part-time-jobs/Vol. 1, Issue 1 spring 2005The Effects of College Student Employment on Academic Achievement By Lauren E WatanabeMentor Jana JasinskiReview of LiteratureAs money and resources start out more scarce for college students, jobs become more of a necessity rather than an after school activity. every changes to students routines will lead to changes in academics, whether they are positivistic or negative. Employment among college students has been increasing rapidly. Its effect on the academic performance of students has been questioned by many researchers (Green, 1987). Some of the issues raised in the literature concern mat ters such as the number of hours worked, whether or not the students jobs pertain to their majors, and the students workloads. As more students are employed, they face having to balance their academic requirements, extracurricular activities, and employment responsibilities to give their lifestyles (Furr Elling, 2000).The literature reviewed below examines how employment has affected academic achievement. Much of the research indicating that employment negatively affects students academic achievement stated that an increase in the amount of hours worked was the most influential factor. In one study, more hours worked decreased the likelihood of being an A student (Pritc stark, 1996). According to Furr and Elling (2000), 29% of the students working 30-39 hours per week and 39% of those students working full time indicated that work had a negative and frequent impact on their academic progress. Those who take on part-time jobs are less engaged in school before they enrol the labor force, and part-time employment, especially for more than 20 hours weekly, further exacerbates this problem (Steinberg et al., 1993, p. 175). Furr and Elling (2000) also found that upperclassmen worked more hours than freshmen, indicating that the older students would be more likely to suffer in their academics. Therefore, working full time has an even greater impact on academics because, often times, working 40 or more hours further decreases a students college grade point average (grade point average) and is negatively related to completion of a bachelors degree (Astin, 1993).The act of balancing school work with the labor market may also lead students to put forth less effort into both because they are spreading themselves too thin (Astin, 1993). According to these researchers, it is not the job itself that causes the problems, but the overload on the amount of time worked because students who work more hours each week spend less time on homework, and pay attention in class les s often (Steinberg Dornbusch, 1991, p. 307). Not all of the research has shown negative GPA effects from the amount of hours a student is employed. Some findings indicated that employment had either a positive effect or none at all. A number of researchers, for example, found that hard work built stronger academic character because it taught the students time management skills, gave them experience outside of the classroom, and provided them with more expiation in college (Pennington, Zvonkovic, Wilson, 1989). Dallam and Hoyt (1981) suggested that a good balance between students credit hours and working hours forced students to be more organized and to have better time management.They also found that students who worked between 1 and 15 hours per week showed a slightly higher GPA than those whose workloads were heavier and those who were not working at all (Dallam Hoyt, 1981 Li-Chen Wooster, 1979). Not only were higher GPAs found in students that maintained jobs, but Green (200 1) also stated that they had gained job skills, experience, association of a variety of jobs, a sense of accomplishment, a feeling of responsibility, and money for personal and school expenses (p. 329). separate researchers, when comparing high and low academic performance and the amount of hours students worked, found that the amount of hours employed did not have an adverse effect on their academics (Pinto, Parente, Palmer, 2001). Similarly, Watts (2002) analysis of 19 students at the University of Brighton found that 4 of 12 working undergraduates said that working did not affect their academics and 5 said that it actually had a positive impact.Although some of the previously mentioned studies used samples of high school students rather than undergraduates, their results were consistent. The fact that some contained samples of less than 50 students, however, may have accounted for some of the differences between the positive and negative academic results. Not accounting for th e amount of time actually put into the job, researchers have found that the type of employment a student holds has an impact on academics. Dead-end jobs such as a cashier or fast food role player tend to have a negative effect (Li-Chen Wooster, 1979), whereas high-quality, part-time jobs that seemed to develop career-related skills may in effect contribute to increased levels of career maturity, and these types of jobs are more likely to be flexible and work with students scrolls (Healy, OShea, Crook, 1985).These types of jobs renounce for hands-on experience that cannot be gained in the classroom alone. For example, of the 600 full-time students at Lamar University surveyed, 91 out of 215 students whose jobs related to their majors had a mean GPA of 2.98, while those whose jobs were career unrelated had a mean GPA of 2.66 (Li-Chen Wooster, 1979). Also, student comments suggested that employment related to a potential career provided additional experience. For example, 10 out of 23 comments of a 120 nursing student survey at a university indicated that they were gaining more practical experience . . . and that as all their employment is in care areas, they felt it had extended their experience (Lee, 1999, p. 448). As money and resources become more scarce for college students, jobs become more of a necessity rather than an after school activity. Any changes to students routines will lead to changes in academics, whether they are positive or negative.Though the research results were not constantly consistent, it was a common theme that the more hours worked led to decreased academic performance, but that working in general did not necessarily have a negative effect on grades. When it came to students jobs as they employ to their majors, the effects were positive in that they provided experience beyond the classroom (Lee, Mawdsley, Rangeley, 1999). The following study will tincture at these variables as well as class standing, the amount of credit hour s taken, and flexibility of the work schedule in order to determine the positive or negative relationship of working and academics. Other variables, such as demographic factors, will also be examined. http//www.urj.ucf.edu/vol1issue1/watanabe/literature.php

The other sister reflection Essay Example for Free

The other sister reflection EssayThis movie portrays how a family, who has a member with a deterioration, encountered and overcame adversities from deep down triggered by several environmental factors. The protagonist, Carla Tate, who has an intellectual disability, seeks freedom from her mother, sufferance from others, and attention/love from opposite sex. Eventually she got those as the story developed. This further means that a disability should never serve as a hindrance in achieving your dreams.On the other hand, it lso gives us an estimation that persons who devote siblings with a disability are also crying out for their parents attention because they too have needs. I never had the chance to experience having a sibling but I wish I had one. Actually, I cant even relate when my cousins/friends speak of sibling rivalry. The bottom line of this is parents should be ordinary with their children there should be no room for favoritism because it can serve as the root of quarrels and divisions. cardinal thing that really intrigues me a lot is its title. It made me think about why it is called The Other Sister.When I heard it (the title), I supposed that the protagonist is an illegitimate child. Then as I watch, I realize that I was wrong with my presumption and I ponder that its more far from but deeper than that. I remembered her lines, mies, I can if you will give me a chance, mother, which drew me to a fact that more often than not, our parents perplexity too much to the point of impeding our capacity to grow. For me, she struggles a lot of being alienated privileged her family when she felt at first uncomfortable with hem, when they sent her away to a far special school, and when they stock-still cant fully accept (in denial of) her disability.Alienation because they seem cant hear the voiceawhich cries aloud within her, cant feel the hunger in her heart and cant see the real her. They want to forecast her the person they want her to be. It might be because they still have in their minds the little Carla whom they can slow dictate or manipulate. She is hardly begging for a chance a chance not only to be independent but also to search for self-identity and to contemplate whom she wants o be despite of her disability.I can hardly bear how much it would be difficult for persons with disability to fght for their office to be heard. attached the fact that they have a disability, still we should not forget that they also have life and right to live it to the fullest. The best part for me is when finally her mother granted her that chance to explore and celebrate life. though its hard in her part to give that but indeed it was the best decision she made for Carla. bind it or not, we also undergo/ undergone that same process.To tell you the truth, even l, also experience unending expectations and it sometimes irritates me. Although its not bad for others to expect from you but when youre being bound with too much expec tations, it can very exhaust you, overrule you, and even destroy you. This might serves as a boundary in achieving your goals. Yes, others opinions, including your familys, issue but sometimes it hinders what and who you really want to be. Lesson never allow others to dictate who you will be at the end choice is yours. -Remigio, Czarine EFR1-3 the day, its still your lite, which means

Explore how Stevenson has presented the character of Mr. Hyde Essay Example for Free

Explore how Stevenson has presented the character of Mr. Hyde Essay gossip on how the author has created a reason of sliminess in this character.Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson is a novella pen in the gothic style, first published in 1886. It is linked to other works written in the same period of time and in the same style, to the highest degree notably Dracula and The Picture of Dorian Gray. During that period, it was believed that people had doppelgangers, or evil twins this is how straight-laceds explained the duality of a person. Duality is a theme greatly explored in the novel not only the duality of an individual but the duality of Victorian cabargont as a whole. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde demonstrated the fact that many high class citizens, who appeared fine and upstanding, hid dark secrets, peculiarly sexual ones exactly care Henry Jekyll. Another theme explored in the novella is that of the importance of theme and class.For example Utterson and E nfield try to avoid gossip and maintain their respectability. Similarly, Utterson tries to preserve Jekylls reputation, even though he senses something is not right. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde has an episodic narrative structure in the fact that it is divided into specific signifi give the sackt events. Mr. Utterson is portrayed as an investigator of sorts, looking for clues and attempting to solve the riddle behind his friends mysterious behavior. Furthermore, the truth is withheld until the end and fin all toldy revealed with the deaths of Lanyon and Jekyll in order to heighten the disbelief in his subscribers.Hydes first introduction to the lecturers is when he tramples over a young person girl. This prejudices the readers intuitive feeling of him because it depicts him committing an act of cruel violence. In addition, the language used to describe Hyde -specifically similes- adds to the already terrible impression the readers have of him. For example, he is depicted as be like a juggernaut and carrying it offlike Satan. This illustrates that he was like an unstoppable force of evil and frightens and alarms the reader. Victorians would be taken aback by this as they were very spectral and believed in Satan. Both the doctor and Mr. Enfield experience the desire to kill him in response to the incident and this would gravel readers as they wouldnt expect such a dramatic reaction from what appear initially to be instead calm, rational people. Many characters are unnerved by Hyde but unable to give an exact description. However, approximately agree that there is something unnatural slightly his appearance not easy to describe, displeasing and downright detestable. Stevenson has been by select vague about Hydes appearance, engaging the readers and allowing them to envision what Hyde looks like individually. As a result, Hyde will look evil to all readers, now and many years from now.In Search for Mr. Hyde Mr. Utterson is distressed at the news that Hyde , a complete stranger, is set to inherit Jekylls fortune in case of his disappearance or unexplained absence. This is a narrative hook Stevenson has used to entice his audience to delve further into the mystery. Additionally, Stevenson has strengthened up hope and a sense of security in Mr. Utterson from the beginning of the novella somehow loveable and eminently humans leading the reader to trust his narrative and respect him. Contrastingly, Stevenson has used language to create a sense of evil in Hyde during Mr. Utterson and Hydes encounter. For instance Mr. Hyde shrank back with a hissing intake of the breath, illustrating that he is primitive and almost animal-like. That is my name. What do you want? is Hydes reaction to Mr. Utterson addressing him, indicating that Hyde is highly anti-social and isnt used to communicating with human beings.After his encounter with Hyde he encourages readers to investigate Hyde there is something more. This creates indistinctness and suspense . Moreover, Stevensons description of Hyde after his encounter with Mr. Utterson emphasizes the sense of evil created previously. Through the repeating of deformed and deformity, he generates a sense of wickedness as during the Victorian era deformity was viewed as something repulsive that should be locked a sort, hidden from the public eye. Furthermore, Uttersons reactions to Hyde support this disgust, loathing and dread. Here, Hyde is compared to Satan again Satans signature upon a face. Victorians would be very shocked by the reference to Satan as to them Satan was the most mightily force of evil on Earth and his signature upon a face would make the person extremely wicked and malevolent.Next, the random act of violence in The Carew Murder Case greatly affects the readers opinion of Hyde. Stevenson has built up the feel of iniquity in Hyde through the maids description of the crime. The verbs and adverbs used are particularly effective. For example, the verbs clubbed and brand ished cook a sense of cruelty in Hyde. Whats more, the aural imagery used allows the reader to visualize the crime, punctuate it and Hydes brutality. The maid describes Hyde as behaving like a madman and having ape-like fury, which suggests Hyde may not have been in affirm of his actions and maybe even suffered from a mental health disorder. However, Victorian readers would not have interpreted that in this way, as there was limited knowledge regarding mental health during that time. Rather, it would have just emphasized Hydes malice.Hydes choice of accommodation reflects his character as he dwells in a dingy street with blackguardly surroundings. The reader is supposed to infer that Hyde is as sinister and repulsive as his environment. Also, this reveals that he is low-class and unsociable, as most high-class respected citizens lived in much more genial environments, without ragged children huddled in the doorways. Additionally, Hydes pad of paper represent the duality of human nature. The juxtaposition of the outside and inside of the house reflects how divided man is. On the inside there is a serious picture hung upon the walls and it is furnished with luxury and good taste and on the outside there is a seedy gin palace and women passing outto have a first light glass, indicating the house was in an area where poor people, drunks and prostitutes lived, an area where Hyde wouldnt stand out or attract attention.Lanyons description of Hyde echoes Hydes previous depictions. Lanyon describes Hyde as seizing, surprising and revolting and that there was an added curiosity as to his originlifeand status, implying that Hyde was repulsive, yet there was something about him which made whoever saw him to want to examine him. This is a tincture about Hydes true identity, as at this point of the narrative, readers still werent expected to know that Hyde is actually Jekylls alter ego. Hydes clothes are another hint they were made of rich and sober fabric but were e normously too large for him. As Jekyll is pissed he could afford luxurious clothes, and of course they would be too big for Hyde as he is well smaller than Jekyll. Lanyon tells of Hyde as having a remarkable combination ofmuscular activity anddebility of constitution, meaning that Hyde was energetic yet appeared lean and in a poor state of health.On one hand, Jekylls description of Hyde is a summary of all the other characters. Jekyll says that evil was written broadly and plainly on Hydes face and that Hyde carried an imprint of deformity and decay. On the other hand, however, Jekyll is attracted to Hyde I was conscious of no repugnance, rather of a leap of welcome, uncover that Jekyll, rather than being repulsed by Hyde and fighting the transformation, is magnetized by him and embraced the transformation. Also, with Hyde, Jekyll feels complete as he no longer has to affair with his dark side but can accept it is a part of him it seemed more express and single. Therefore, the reader is not expected to feel shocked when Jekyll says human beingsare commingled out of good and evil, as Jekyll has just explained that good and evil co-exist in a person and that it is impossible to be whole without both, linking to the theme of duality. All of us are good and evil, but we decide which side to act on.Hydes desires were mostly why Jekyll chose to transform into him. Jekyll doesnt designate what these desires were. What was deemed as socially intolerable and undignified in the Victorian era, might not be viewed that way today. For this reason, Stevenson has not specified what Hyde gets up to or the kind of pleasures he fulfils so that the text is mentally touch to readers, be it Victorians or present day readers. Additionally, Stevenson has withheld the details because they probably would have offended a Victorian audience. Nonetheless, this would be different with a modern audience as a modern audience is receptive to much more than a Victorian one. And, the t ext is more effective without the details as readers are left to guess, which means Hydes secret could be any one of hundreds. Again, Stevenson is being deliberately vague, just as he was with Hydes appearance making Hydes secret all things to all readers.In conclusion, by not revealing many details about Hyde, Stevenson created a truly evil character, as humans inherently fear the unknown. When the (few) details are revealed to the readers they are extremely unpleasant, with Hyde being deformed, ape-like and repulsive. Still, the real horror in the story is not Hyde. Jekyll, at the start of chapter 10, describes himself as being bornendowed besides with excellent partswith every guarantee of an honourable and wondrous future. Stevenson could have been describing every person in this way, as we are all born expected to be excellent, principled humans, with every guarantee of an honourable and distinguished future. Therefore, in at least one way, everyone can relate to Jekyll. So, t he real horror is not Hyde, but rather that every person, good or bad, is a Jekyll and a Hyde.

Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data Essay Example for Free

Approaches to the epitome of Survey info Es secern1. Preparing for the abridgment1.1 IntroductionThis hire is concerned with just ab let on fundamental ideas of psycho f each revealline of info from slews. The backgroundion is at a statistic all(pre token(a))y mere(a)x level change state acer(a) more(prenominal)(prenominal) sophisticated statistical approaches ar compendd in our perish fresh Methods of Analysis. Our aim here is to clarify the ideas that successful take onive study analysts unremarkably charter to look to complete a panorama abbreviation task purposefully.An ill-thought-out summary process potbelly pay back incompatible sidings and numerous a nonher(prenominal) results that neer get discussed or apply. It lowlife overlook key occurings and fail to pull out the sub entraps of the sample where shit findings atomic turning 18 evident. Our brief discussion is intended to tending the research team in chokeing consonantly i t is no substitute for clear-sighted and thorough work by researchers.We do non aim to turn out a organicly nave analyst exactly how to tackle a segmenticular gear up of survey selective information. However, we believe that where readers can undertake staple fiber survey analysis, our recommendations bequeath help and encourage them to do so better.Chapter 1 outlines a series of themes, after an introductory role model. Different entropy types ar distinguished in section 1.2. Section 1.3 looks at info social organisations un businessatic if there is unrivalled type of sampling social unit reckond, and hierarchical with e.g. communities, kins psyches and individuals. In section 1.4 we separate out triple spirit levels of survey data handling exploration, analysis and archiving which help to define expectations and procedures for different parts of the boilers suit process.We contrast the research objectives of description or adherence (section 1.5), and of co mparison(section 1.6) and what these imply for analysis. Section 1.7 considers when results should be packed to roleplay the world depending on the extent to which a numeric value is or is non central to the interpretation of survey results. In section 1.8 we outline the tag of non- quantitative solvents. The use of ranked data is discussed in brief in section 1.9.In Chapter 2 we look at the ways in which researchers unremarkably analyse survey data. We focus primarily on tabular methods, for evidences explained in section 2.1. Simple one-way tables argon frequently useful as explained in section 2.2. Cross- tabular matters (section 2.3) can take m either forms and we need to think which argon appropriate. Section 2.4 discusses issues or so the true in relation to two- and multi-way tables. In section 2.5 we briefly discuss what to do when some(prenominal) repartees can be selected in response to one gesture. SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey entropy5Cr oss-tabulations can look at m any(prenominal) opposeents, and only at a small bod of questions, and we discuss write in section 2.6, cluster analysis in section 2.7, and powers in sections 2.8 and 2.9.1.2 information TypesIntroductory Example On a nominal ordered series the categories recorded, usually counted, be described verbally. The scale has no numerical attri nonwithstandinges. If a single o in the buffay table resulting from simple summarisation of nominal ( also called monotonous) scale data contains frequenciesChristianHindu IslamicSikhOther292431178625there is little that can be do to present exactly the same reading in opposite forms. We could report highest relative frequency first as opposed to alphabetic order, or reduce the information in some way e.g. if one notation is of key importance comp argond to the othersHinduNon-Hindu243257On the other hand, where there atomic number 18 ordered categories, the sequence makes perceive only in one, or in exac tly the opposite, orderExcellentGood master inadequateVery Bad292431178625We could reduce the information by combining categories as above, save also we can summarise, somewhat numerically, in various ways. For example, accepting a degree of arbitrariness, we readiness give scores to the categoriesExcellentGoodModeratePoorVery Bad54321and then discover an average score a numerical indicator for the sample of29 5+ 243 4+ 117 3+ 86 2+ 25 129+ 243+ 117+ 86+ 25= 3.33This is an analogue of the arithmetical calculation we would do if the categories really were numbers pool e.g. family sizings.6 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey infoThe same average score of 3.33 could arise from differently patterned data e.g. from or else more extreme resultsExcellentGoodModeratePoorVery Bad791931173675Hence, as with any other indicator, this average only represents one feature of the data and some(prenominal)(prenominal) summaries ordain some durations be needed.A major in telligibleion in statistical methods is between valued data and the other categories exemplified above. With quantitative data, the difference between the values from two answerers has a clearly defined and incontrovertible meaning e.g. It is 5C hotter now than it was at dawn or You consent two more children than your infant.Commonplace statistical methods provide many well-known approaches to much(prenominal) data, and be taught in intimately physiques, so we give them only passing attention here. In this template we focus primarily on the other types of data, coded in number form moreover with less(prenominal) clear-cut numerical meaning, as fol pathetics.Binary e.g. yes/no data can be coded in 1/0 form while purely flavourless or nominal data e.g. caste or ethnicity whitethorn be coded 1, 2, 3 using numbers that argon just arbitrary labels and cannot be added or subtracted. It is also common to open ordered categorical data, where items may be rated Excellent, Good, Poor, Useless, or responses to attitude statements may be powerfully agree, Agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Disagree, Strongly disagree.With ordered categorical data the number labels should form a rational sequence, because they swallow some numerical meaning e.g. scores of 4, 3, 2, 1 for Excellent through to Useless. Such data supports contain quantitative analysis, and is a groovy deal referred to by statisticians as qualitative this usage does not imply that the elicitation procedure mustiness indulge a purists restrictiveperception of what constitutes qualitative research methodology.1.3 selective information StructureSIMPLE muckle DATA STRUCTURE the data from a single-round survey, analysed with limited quotation to other information, can a good deal be thought of as a flat rectangular file of numbers, whether the numbers are counts/ standardments, or codes, or a mixture. In a social organisationd survey with numbered questions, the flat file has a newspap er column for for all(prenominal) one question, and a row for to severally one respondent, a convention common to al most(prenominal) all standard statistical packages.If the data form a perfect rectangular grid with a number in any cell, analysis is make relatively easy, but there are many reasons why this provide not always be the case and flat file data leave alone be incomplete or irregular. Most grandly- SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data7 Surveys ofttimes bring skip questions where sections are missed out if irrelevant e.g. details of spouses employment do not live on for the unmarried. These arise legitimately, but imply different sub situateds of people respond to different questions. Contingent questions, where not all(prenominal)one qualifies to dress, often authorise to inconsistent-seeming results for this reason. If the overall sample size is just adequate, the subset who qualify for a particular set of dependant on(p) questions may be too small to analyse in the detail required. If some respondents fail to respond to some questions (item non-response) there will be holes in the rectangle. Non- illuminating non-response occurs if the data is missing for a reason unrelated to the true answers e.g. the inter imagineer turned over two pages instead of one Informative non-response elbow room that the absence of an answer itself tells you something, e.g. you are almost sure that the missing income value will be one of the highest in the community.A little potentially informative non-response may be ignorable, if there is plenty of data. If data are sparse or if informativenon-response is frequent, the analysis should take account of what can be inferred from sharp that there are informative missing values. HIERARCHICAL DATA STRUCTURE another complexity of survey data structure arises if the data are hierarchical. A common type of hierarchy is where a series of questions is repeated opine for individually child in the family, and combined with a household questionnaire, and maybe data collect at community level.For analysis, we can create a rectangular flat file, at the child level, by repeating relevant household information in separate rows for each child. Similarly, we can summarise information for the children in a household, to create a household level analysis file. The number of children in the household is usually a desirable part of the stocky this post-stratification variable can be used to produce sub-group analyses at household level separating out households with different numbers of child members.The way the sampling was through can have an effect on interpretation or analysis of a hierarchical study. For example if children were chosen at random, households with more children would have a greater adventure of inclusion and a simple average of the household sizes would be biased upwards it should be corrected for selection probabilities.Hierarchical structure suits of the ess ence(p), and harder to handle, if there are many levels where data are collected e.g. government guidance and allocations of resource, District schooling Committee interpretations of the guidance, Village Task Force selections of preventative net beneficiaries, then households and individuals whose vulnerabilities and opportunities are affected by targeting finalitys taken at higher levels in the hierarchy. In much(prenominal) cases, a relational database reflecting the hierarchical8 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Datastructure is a frequently more desirable way than a spreadsheet to define and retain the inter-relationships between levels, and to create many analysis files at different levels. Such issues are described in the guide The Role of a Database parcel for seek Projects. Any one of the analysis files may be used as we discuss below, but any such study will be looking at one facet of the structure, and several analyses will have to be brought unitedl y for an overall interpretation.A more sophisticated approach using multi-level modelling, described in our guide on novel Methods of Analysis, provides a way to look at several levels together.1.4 Stages of AnalysisIt is often outlay distinguishing the triad stages of exploratory analysis, deriving the important findings, and archiving.EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS (EDA) means looking at the data files, maybe eve before all the data has been collected and entered, to get an idea of what is there. It can top to additional data collection if this is seen to be needed, or savings by stopping collecting data when a conclusion is al rear clear, or existing results prove worthless. It is not assumed that results from EDA are ready for release as study findings. EDA usually overlaps with data cleaning it is the stage where anomalies become evident e.g. one by one plausible values may lead to a way-out straits when combined with other variables on a scatterplot. In an ideal situation, EDA would end with confidence that one has a clean dataset, so that a single version of the main datafiles can be finalised and locked and all published analyses condescendd from a single consistent form of the data. In practice later stages of analysis often produce additional queries about data values. Such exploratory analysis will also show up limitations in dependant on(p) questions e.g. we faculty find we dont have lavish currently married women to analyse their income sources individually by district. EDA should include the final reconciliation of analysis ambitions with data limitations. This phase can result the form of analysis to be tried out and agreed, developing analysis plans and program code in jibe with the final data collection, data entry and checking. Purposeful EDA allows the subsequent stage of deriving the main findings to be relatively quick, uncontroversial, and well educated. DERIVING THE MAIN FINDINGS the here and now stage willideally begin with a clear-cut clean version of the data, so that analysis files are consistent with one another, and any inconsistencies, e.g. in numbers included, can be clearly explained. This is the stage we amplify upon, later in this guide. It should generate the summary SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data9findings, relationships, models, interpretations and narratives, and recommendations that research users will need to begin utilising the results.firstOf cart track one needs to allow time for plain but usually inevitable tasks such as follow-up work to produce further more detail findings, e.g. elucidating unexpected results from the pre-planned work. a change made to the data, each time a frontly unsuspected written text or data entry misplay comes to light. and so it is important to correct the database and all analysis files already created that involve the value to be corrected. This will mean repeating analyses that have already been do using, but not revealing, the erroneous value. If that analysis was done by mouse clicking and with no record of the steps, this can be very tedious. This stage of work is scoop out undertaken using software that can keep a log it records the analyses in the form of program operating instructions that can readily and accurately be re-run.ARCHIVING means that data collectors keep, perhaps on CD, all the non-ephemeral literal relating to their efforts to acquire information. Obvious components of such a record include(i) data collection instruments, (ii) bleak data, (iii) metadata recording the what, where, when, and other identifiers of all variables, (iv) variable names and their interpretations, and labels comparable to values of categorical variables, (v) query programs used to cite analysis files from the database, (vi) log filesdefining the analyses, and (vii) reports. Often georeferencing information, digital photographs of sites and scans of documentary somatic are also useful. democratic villag e maps, for example, can be kept for reference as digital photographs. Surveys are often entangled endeavours where analysis covers only a instalment of what could be done. Reasons for developing a good management system, of which the schedule is part, include keeping the research process organised as it progresses satisfying the sponsors (e.g. DFIDs) contractual requirement that data should be available if required by the funder or by legitimate surrogate researchers permitting a detailed re-analysis to authenticate the findings if they are questioned allowing a different breakdown of results e.g. when administrative boundaries are redefined linking several studies together, for instance in longer-term analyses carrying baseline data through to refer sagaciousness.10 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data1.5 Population Description as the Major ObjectiveIn the next section we look at the objective of comparing results from sub-groups, but a more basic aim is to estimate a characteristic kindred the absolute number in a category of proposed beneficiaries, or a relative number such as the prevalence of HIV seropositives. The estimate may be needed to describe a whole community or sections of it. In the basic analyses discussed below, we need to bear in mind some(prenominal) the planned and the achieved sampling structure.Example Suppose before and after surveys were each planned to have a 5050 split of urban and rural respondents. Even if we achieved 5050 splits, these would need some manipulation if we lossed to generalise the results to represent an actual population split of 7030 urbanrural. Say we wanted to assess the change from before to after and the achieved samples were in fact split 5545 and 4555. We would have to correct theresults carefully to get a meaningful estimate of change. Samples are often stratified i.e. structured to capture and represent particular segments of the target population.This may be much more sophistic ated than the urban/rural split in the previous paragraph. Within-stratum summaries serve to describe and modify each of these parts individually. If required by the objectives, overall summaries, which put together the strata, need to describe and characterize the whole population. It may be fine to treat the sample as a whole and produce simple, unweighted summaries if (i) we have set out to sample the strata proportionately, (ii) we have achieved this, and (iii) there are no problems due to hierarchical structure.Nonproportionality arises from various quite distinct sources, in particular Case A often sampling is disproportional crossways strata by design, e.g. the urban situation is more novel, complex, interesting or devilible, and gets greater coverage than the fraction of the population classed as rural. Case B sometimes particular strata are bedevilled with high levels of nonresponse, so that the data are not proportionate to stratum sizes, even when the original plan was that they should be.If we ignore non-proportionality, a simple(a) summary over all cases is not a proper representation of the population in these instances.The mechanistic response to correct both the above cases is (1) to produce withinstratum results (tables or whatever), (2) to scale the numbers in them to represent the true population fraction that each stratum comprises, and then (3) to combine the results. SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data11There is often a problem with doing this in case B, where non-response is an important part of the disproportionality the reasons why data are missing from particular strata often correspond to real differences in the behaviour of respondents, in particular those omitted or under-sampled, e.g. We had very good response rates everywhere except in the north. There a high proportion of the population are nomadic, and we generally failed to find them. Justscaling up data from settled northerners does not take account of the different lifestyle and livelihood of the missing nomads.If you have thumpingly missed a complete category, it is honest to report partial results making it clear which categories are not covered and why. whiz common sampling problem arises when a substantial part of the target population is unwilling or unable to cooperate, so that the results in effect only represent a limited subset those who volunteer or agree to take part. Of course the results are biased towards e.g. those who command sufficient resources to cede the time, or e.g. those who habitually take it upon themselves to represent others.We would be suspicious of any study which poped to have relied on volunteers, but did not look carefully at the limits this imposed on the generalisability of the conclusions. If you have a low response rate from one stratum, but are still prepared to argue that the data are somewhat representative, the situation is at the very least uncomfortable. Where you have disproporti onately fewer responses, the multipliers used in scaling up to represent the stratum will be very high, so your limited data will be heavily weighted in the final overall summary. If there is any observable argument that these results are untypical, it is worthwhile to think carefully before giving them extra prominence in this way.1.6 Comparison as the Major ObjectiveOne sound reason for disproportionate sampling is that the main objective is a comparison of subgroups in the population. Even if one of two groups to be compared is very small, say 10% of the totality number in the population, we now want roughly equally many observations from each subgroup, to describe both groups roughly equally accurately.There is no point in comparing a very accurate set of results from one group with a very vague, ill-defined description of the other the comparison is at least as vague as the worse description. The same broad precept applies whether the comparison is a wholly quantitative on e looking at the difference in means of a numerical measure between groups, or a much looser verbal comparison e.g. an assessment of differences in pattern across a range of cross-tabulations.12 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey DataIf for a subsidiary objective we produce an overall summary giving the general picture of which both groups are part, 5050 sampling may need to be re-weighted 9010 to produce a quantitative overall picture of the sampled population. The great difference between true experimental approaches and surveys is that experiments usually involve a relatively specific comparison as the major objective, while surveys much more often do not.Many surveys have twofold objectives, frequently ill defined, often contradictory, and usually not officially prioritised. Along with the likelihood of some non-response, this tends to mean there is no sampling scheme which is lift out for all parts of the analysis, so various different weight schemes may be need ed in the analysis of a single survey.1.7 When Weighting MattersSeveral times in the above we have discussed issues about how survey results may need to be scaled or weighted to allow for, or correct for, inequalities in how the sample represents the population. sometimes this is of great importance, sometimes not. A fair evaluation of survey work ought to consider whether an appropriate tradeoff has been achieved between the need for accuracy and the benefits of simplicity. If the objective is formal estimation, e.g. of total population size from a census of a sample of communities, we are concerned to produce a strictly numerical answer, which we would like to be as accurate as circumstances allow.We should then correct as best we can for a distorted representation of the population in the sample. If groups being formally compared run across several population strata, we should try to ensure the comparison is fair by similar corrections, so that the groups are compared on the basi s of consistent samples. In these cases we have to face up to problems such as signally large weights attached to poorly-responding strata, and we may need to investigate the extent to which the final answer is dubious because of aesthesia to results from such subsamples.Survey findings are often used in less numerical ways, where it may not beso important to achieve accurate weighting e.g. whatever varieties they grow for sale, a large majority of farm households in Sri Lanka favor traditional red rice varieties for home consumption because they prefer their flavour. If this is a clear-cut finding which accords with other information, if it is to be used for a simple decision process, or if it is an interim finding which will prompt further investigation, there is a lot to be said for keeping the analysis simple.Of course it saves time and money. It makes the process of interpretation of the findings more accessible to those not very involved in the study. Also, weighting scheme s depend on good information to create the weighting factors and this may be hard to pin down. SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data13Where we have worryingly large weights, attaching to small amounts of doubtful information, it is natural to want to put limits on, or cap, the high weights, even at the expense of introducing some bias, i.e. to prevent any part of the data having too much impact on the result.The ultimate form of capping is to express doubts about all the data, and to give equal weight to every observation. The rationale, not usually clearly stated, even if analysts are aware they have done this, is to minimise the maximal weight wedded to any data item.This lends some support to the common practice of analysing survey data as if they were a simple random sample from an unstructured population. For less numerical usages, this may not be particularly problematic as far as simple description is concerned. Of course it is disparage and may be very misl eading to follow this up by calculating standard deviations and making claims of accuracy about the results which their derivation will not sustain1.8 CodingWe recognise that purely qualitative researchers may prefer to use qualitative analysis methods and software, but where open-form and otherverbal responses occur aboard numerical data it is often sensible to use a quantitative tool. From the statistical viewpoint, basic coding implies that we have material, which can be put into nominal-level categories. Usually this is recorded in verbal or intense form, maybe on audio- or videotape, or written down by interviewers or self-reported. We would advocate computerising the raw data, so it is archived.The following refers to extracting codes, usually describing the routine comments, preferably than unique individual ones which can be used for subsequent qualitative analysis. By scanning the set of responses, themes are developed which reflect the items noted in the material. Thes e should reflect the objectives of the activity. It is not necessary to code rare, irrelevant or uninteresting material.In the code training phase, a large enough range of the responses is scanned to be reasonably sure that commonly occurring themes have been noted. If previous literature, or theory, suggests other themes, these are noted too. Ideally, each theme is broken down into unambiguous, mutually exclusive and exhaustive, categories so that any response segment can be assigned to just one, and assigned the corresponding code value.A codebook is then prepared where the categories are listed and codes assigned to them. Codes do not have to be consecutive numbers. It is common to think of codes as presence/absence markers, but there is no intrinsic reason why they should not be graded as ordered categorical variables if appropriate, e.g. on a scale such as fervent, positive, uninterested/no opinion, negative.14 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey DataThe intact bo dy of material is then reviewed and codes are recorded. This may be in relevant places on questionnaires or transcripts. Especially when looking at new material not used in code development, extra items may arise and need to be added to the codebook. This may mean another pass through material already reviewed, to add new codes e.g. because aparticular response is turning up more than expected. From the point of view of analysis, no particular significance attaches to particular numbers used as codes, but it is worth bearing in mind that statistical packages are usually excellent at sorting, selecting or flagging, for example, numbers between 10 and 19 and other arithmetically defined sets.If these all referred to a theme such as forest exploitation activities of male farmers they could tardily be bundled together. It is of course im viable to separate out items given the same code, so deciding the right level of coding detail is essential at an early stage in the process. When cod es are analysed, they can be treated like other nominal or ordered categorical data. The frequencies of different types of response can be counted or cross-tabulated. Since they often derive from text passages and the like, they are often particularly well-adapted for use in sorting listings of verbal comments into relevant bundles for detailed non-quantitative analysis.1.9 Ranking ScoringA common means of eliciting data is to ask individuals or groups to rank a set of options. The researchers decision to use ranks in the first place means that results are less informative than scoring, especially if respondents are forced to choose between some nearly-equal alternatives and some very different ones. A British 8-year-old offered baked beans on toast, or fish and chips, or chicken burger, or sushi with hot radish might rank these 1, 2, 3, 4 but score them 9, 8.5, 8, and 0.5 on a zero to ten scale Ranking is an easy task where the set of ranks is not required to contain more than a bout quad or five choices.It is common to ask respondents to rank, say, their best four-spot from a list of ten, with 1 = best, etc. Accepting a degree of arbitrariness, we would usually replace ranks 1, 2, 3, 4, and a make of blanks by pseudo-scores 4, 3, 2, 1, and a string of zeros, which gives a complete force of numbers we can summarise rather than a sparse array where we dont know how to handle the blanks. A project output paper available on the SSC website explores this in more detail. Converting Ranks to Scores for an ad hoc Assessment of Methods of Communication Available to Farmers by Savitri Abeyasekera, JulieLawson-Macdowell Ian Wilson. This is an output from DFID-funded work under the Farming Systems Integrated Pest Management Project, Malawi and DFID NRSP project R7033, Methodological Framework for Combining soft and Quantitative Survey Methods. SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data15Where the instructions were to rank as many as you wish from a fi xed, long list, we would tend to replace the variable length lists of ranks with scores. One might develop these as if respondents each had a fixed amount, e.g. 100 beans, to allocate as they saw fit. If four were chosen these might be scored 40, 30, 20, 10, or with five chosen 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, with zeros again for unranked items. These scores are arbitrary e.g. 40, 30, 20, 10 could instead be any number of choices e.g. 34, 28, 22, 16 or 40, 25, 20, 15 this reflects the rather uninformative nature of rankings, and the difficulty of post hoc construction of information that was not elicited trenchantly in the first place.Having reflected and having replaced ranks by scores we would usually treat these like any other numerical data, with one change of emphasis. Where results might be sensitive to the actual values attributed to ranks, we would stress sensitivity analysis more than with other types of numerical data, e.g. re-running analyses with (4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 0, ) pseudo-scores replaced by (6, 4, 2, 1, 0, 0 , ). If the interpretations of results are insensitive to such changes, the choice of scores is not critical.16 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data2. Doing the Analysis2.1 ApproachesData listings are readily produced by database and many statistical packages. They are generally on a case-by-case basis, so are particularly sufficient inEDA as a means of course of instructioning down odd values, or patterns, to be explored. For example, if material is in verbal form, such a listing can give exactly what every respondent was recorded as saying. Sorting these records according to who collected them, say may show up great differences in field workers aptitude, awareness or approach.Data listings can be an adjunct to tabulation in Excel, for example, the Drill Down feature allows one to look at the data from individuals who appear together in a single cell. There is a place for the use of graphical methods, especially for presentational pu rposes, where simple messages need to be given in easily understood, and attentiongrabbing form. Packages offer many ways of making results aglow(predicate) and colourful, without necessarily conveying more information or a more accurate understanding. A few basic points are covered in the guide on Informative Presentation of Tables, Graphs and Statistics.Where the data are at all voluminous, it is a good idea selectively to tabulate most qualitative but numerically coded data i.e. the binary, nominal or ordered categorical types mentioned above. Tables can be very effective in presentations if stripped down to focus on key findings, crisply presented. In longer reports, a carefully crafted, well documented, set of cross-tabulations is usually an essential component of summary and comparative analysis, because of the limitations of approaches which avoid tabulation Large numbers of charts and pictures can become expensive, but also repetitive, confusing and difficult to use as a so urce of detailed information. With substantial data, a purely narrative full description will be so long-winded and repetitive that readers will have great difficulty getting a clear picture of what the results have to say. With a briefer verbal description, it is difficult not to be overly selective. Then the reader has to question why a great deal went into collecting data that merits little description, and should question the impartiality of the reporting. At the other extreme, some analysts will skip or skimp the tabulation stage and move rapidly to complex statistical modelling.Their findings are just as much to be distrusted The models may be based on preconceptions rather than evidence, they may fit badly and conceal important variations in the underlying patterns. SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data17 In terms of producing final outputs, data listings rarely get more than a place in an appendix. They are usually too extensive to be assimilated by the busy reader, and are unsuitable for presentation purposes.2.2 One-Way TablesThe most straightforward form of analysis, and one that often supplies much of the basic information need, is to tabulate results, question by question, as one-way tables. Sometimes this can be done using an original questionnaire and writing on it the frequency or number of people who ticked each box. Of course this does not identify which respondents produced particular combinations of responses, but this is often a first step where a quick and/or simple summary is required.2.3 Cross-Tabulation Two-Way Higher-Way TablesAt the most basic level, cross-tabulations break down the sample into bipartite tables showing the response categories of one question as row runings, those of another question as column headings. If for example each question has five possible answers the table breaks the total sample down into 25 subgroups.If the answers are subdivided e.g. by sex of respondent, there will be one three-way ta ble, 5x5x2, probably shown on the page as separate two-way tables for males and for females. The total sample size is now split over 50 categories and the degree to which the data can sanely be disaggregated will be constrained by the total number of respondents represented.There are usually many possible two-way tables, and even more three-way tables. The main analysis needs to involve careful thought as to which ones are necessary, and how much detail is needed.Even after deciding that we want some cross-tabulation with categories of question J as rows and question K as columns, there are several otherdecisions to be made The number in the cells of the table may be just the frequency i.e. the number of respondents who gave that combination of answers. This may be rephrased as a proportion or a component of the total.Alternatively, percentages can be scaled so they total 100% across each row or down each column, so as to make particular comparisons clearer. The contents of a cel l can equally well be a statistic derived from one or more other questions e.g. the proportion of the respondents accrueing in that cell who were economically-active women. Often such a table has an associated frequency table to show how many responses went in to each cell. If the cell frequencies represent18 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Datasmall subsamples the results can vary wildly, just by chance, and should not be over-interpreted. Where interest focuses mainly on one theatre of operations of a two-way table it may be possible to combine rows and columns that we dont need to separate out, e.g. ruling party supporters vs. supporters of all other parties. This simplifies interpretation and presentation, as well as trim the impact of chance variations where there are very small cell counts. Frequently we dont just want the cross-tabulation for all respondents. We may want to have the same table separately for each region of the country described as segmenta tion or for a particular group on whom we wish to focus such as AIDS orphans described as selection. Because of varying levels of success in covering a population, the response set may end up being very peckish in its coverage of the target population. Then simply combining over the respondents can mis-represent the intended population. It may be necessary to show the patterns in tables, sub-group by sub-group to convey the whole picture. An alternative, discussed in Part 1, is to weight up the results from the sub-groups to give a fairrepresentation of the whole.2.4 Tabulation the Assessment of AccuracyTabulation is usually purely descriptive, with limited effort made to assess the accuracy of the numbers tabulated. We caution that confidence intervals are sometimes very wide when survey samples have been disaggregated into various subgroups if crucial decisions hang on a few numbers it may well be worth putting extra effort into assessing and discussing how tried and true t hese are. If the uses intended for various tables are not very numerical or not very crucial, it is likely to cause unjustifiable delay and frustration to attempt to put formal measures of precision on the results.Usually, the most important considerations in assessing the feature or value or accuracy of results are not those relating to statistical sampling variation, but those which appraise the following factors and their effects evenness of coverage of the target (intended) population suitability of the sampling scheme reviewed in the light of field experience and findings sophistication and uniformity of response elicitation and accuracy of field recording efficacy of measures to prevent, compensate for, and understand non-response quality of data entry, cleaning and metadata recording selection of appropriate subgroups in analysis SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data19If any of the above factors raises important concerns, it is necessary to think hard about the interpretation of statistical measures of precision such as standard errors. A factor that has uneven effects will introduce biases, whose size and detectability ought to be dispassionately appraised and reported with the conclusions. inferential statistical procedures can be used to guide generalisations from the sample to the population, where asurvey is not badly affected by any of the above. Inference addresses issues such as whether apparent patterns in the results have come about by chance or can reasonably be taken to reflect real features of the population. Basic ideas are reviewed in Understanding Significance the Basic Ideas of Inferential Statistics.More advanced approaches are described in Modern Methods of Analysis. Inference is particularly valuable, for instance, in find the appropriate form of presentation of survey results. Consider an adoption study, which examined socioeconomic factors affecting adoption of a new technology. Households are classified as male or female headed, and the level of education and access to credit of the head is recorded. At its most complicated the total number of households in the sample would be classified by adoption, gender of household head, level of education and access to credit resulting in a 4-way table.Now suppose, from chi-square tests we find no evidence of any relationship between adoption and education or access to credit. In this case the results of the simple twoway table of adoption by gender of household head would probably be appropriate.If on the other hand, access to credit were the main criterion affecting the chance of adoption and if this association varied according to the gender of the household head, the simple two-way table of adoption by gender would no longer be appropriate and a three-way table would be necessary. Inferential procedures thence help in deciding whether presentation of results should be in terms of one-way, two-way or higher dimensional tables.Chi-square tests ar e limited to examining association in two-way tables, so have to be used in a piecemeal fashion for more complicated situations like that above. A more general way to examine tabulated data is to use log-linear models described in Modern Methods of Analysis.2.5 treble Response DataSurveys often contain questions where respondents can choose a number of relevant responses, e.g.20 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey DataIf you are not using an improved fallow on any of your bring, please tick from the list below, any reasons that apply to you(i)Dont have any land of my own(ii)Do not have any suitable crop for an improved fallow(iii) feces not afford to buy the seed or plants(iv)Do not have the time/ brayThere are three ways of computerising these data. The simplest is to provide as many columns as there are alternatives. This is called a quadruplex dichotomy, because there is a yes/no (or 1/0) response in each case indicating that the respondent ticked/did not tick each item in the list.The second way is to find the level best number of ticks from anyone and then have this number of columns, entering the codes for ticked responses, one per column. This is known as multiple response data. This is a useful method if the question asks respondents to put the alternatives in order of importance, because the first column can give the most important reason, and so on.A third method is to have a separate table for the data, with just 2 columns. The first identifies the person and the second gives their responses. There are as many rows of data as there are reasons. There is no entry for aperson who gives no reasons. Thus, in this third method the length of the columns is equal to the number of responses rather than the number of respondents.If there are follow-up questions about each reason, the third method above is the obvious way to organise the data, and readers may identify the general concept as being that of data at another level, i.e. the reason l evel. More information on organising this type of data is provided in the guide The Role of a Database Package for Research Projects.Essentially such data are analysed by building up counts of the numbers of mentions of each response. Apart from SPSS, few standard statistics packages have any special facilities for processing multiple response and multiple dichotomy data. Almost any package can be used with a little ingenuity, but working from first principles is a timeconsuming business. On our web site we describe how Excel may be used.2.6 ProfilesUsually the questions as put to respondents in a survey need to represent atomic facets of an issue, uttered in concrete terms and simplified as much as possible, so that there is no ambiguity and so they will be consistently interpreted by respondents. SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data21Basic cross-tabulations are based on reporting responses to such individual questions and are thus narrowly issue-specific. A rather different approach is needed if the researchers ambitions include taking an overall view of individual, or small groups, responses as to their livelihood, say. Cross-tabulations of individual questions are not a sensible approach to people-centred or holistic summary of results. Usually, even when tackling issues a great deal less complicated than livelihoods, the more important research outputs are complex molecules which bring togetherresponses from numerous questions to produce higher-level conclusions described in more plagiarise terms.For example several questions may each enquire whether the respondent follows a particular recommendation, whereas the output may be concerned with overall compliance the abstract concept behind the questioning. A compose is a description synthesising responses to a range of questions, perhaps in terms of a set of abstract nouns like compliance. It may describe an individual, cluster of respondents or an entire population.One approach to discus sing a large concept is to produce numerous cross-tabulations reflecting actual questions and to synthesise their information content verbally. This tends to lose sight of the pen element if particular groups of respondents tend to reply to a range of questions in a similar way, this overall grouping will often come out only weakly. If you try to follow the group of individuals who appear together in one corner cell of the first cross-tab, you cant easily track whether they stay together in a cross-tab of other variables.Another type of approach may be more constructive to derive semisynthetic variables indicators which bring together inputs from a range of questions, say into a measure of compliance, and to analyse those, by cross-tabulation or other methods. See section 2.8 below. If we have an analysis dataset with a row for each respondent and a column for each question, the derivation of a synthetic variable just corresponds to adding an extra column to the dataset. This i s then used in analysis just like any other column. A profile for an individual will often comprise a set of values of a suite of indicators.2.7 Looking for Respondent GroupsProfiling is often concerned with acknowledging that respondents are not just a homogeneous mass, and distinguishing between different groups of respondents. Cluster analysis is a data-driven statistical technique that can draw out and thence characterise groups of respondents whose response profiles are similar to one another. The response profiles may serve to differentiate one group from another if they are somewhat distinct.This might be needed if the aim were, say, to define22 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Datatarget groups for distinct safety net interventions. The analysis could help clarify the distinguishing features of the groups, their sizes, their distinctness or otherwise, and so on. Unfortunately there is no guarantee that groupings derived from data alone will make good sense i n terms of profiling respondents. Cluster analysis does not characterise the groupings you have to study each cluster to see what they have in common. Nor does it prove that they constitute suitable target groups for meaningful development interventionsCluster analysis is thus an exploratory technique, which may help to screen a large mass of data, and prompt more attentive analysis by raising questions such as Is there any sign that the respondents do fall into clear-cut sub-groups? How many groups do there seem to be, and how important are their separations? If there are distinct groups, what sorts of responses do typical group members give?2.8 IndicatorsIndicators are summary measures. Magazines provide many examples, e.g. an assessment of personalized computers may give a score in numerical form like 7 out of 10 or a pictorial form of quality rating, e.g.Very goodGoodModeratePoorVery PoorThis review of computers may give scores indicators for each of several characteristic s, where the maximum score for each characteristic reflects its importance e.g. for one model- build quality (7/10), screen quality (8/20), processor speed (18/30), hard disk capacity (17/20) and software provided (10/20). The maximum score over all characteristics in the summary indicator is in this case (10 + 20 + 30 + 20 + 20) = 100, so the total score for each computer is a percentage e.g. above (7 + 8 + 18 + 17 + 10) = 60%.The popularity of such summaries demonstrates that readers find them accessible, convenient and to a degree useful. This is either because there is little time to attract detailed information, or because the indicators provide a baseline from which to weigh up the finer points.Many disciplines of course are awash with suggested indicators from simple averages to housing quality measures, social capital assessment tools, or quality-adjusted geezerhood of life. Of course new indicators should be developed only if others do nor exist or are unsatisfactory. Wel l-understood, well-validated indicators, relevant to the situation in hand are quicker and more cost-effective to use. Defining an economical set of meaningful indicators before data collection ought ideally to imply that at SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data23analysis, their calculation follows a pre-defined path, and the values are readily interpreted and used.Is it legitimate to create new indicators after data collection and during analysis? This is to be expected in genuine research where fieldwork approaches allow new ideas to come forward e.g. if new lines of questioning have been used, or if survey findings take the researchers into areas notwell covered by existing indicators. A study relatively early on in a research cycle, e.g. a baseline survey, can fall into this category. Usually this means the available time and data are not quite what one would desire in order to ensure well-understood, well-validated indicators place in final form from the analysis .Since the problem does arise, how does the analyst best face up to it? It is important not to create unnecessary confusion. An indicator should synthesise information and serve to represent a reasonable measure of some issue or concept. The concept should have an agreed name so that users can discuss it meaningfully e.g. compliance or vulnerability to flooding.A specific meaning is attached to the name, so it is important to realise that the jargon thus created needs careful explanation to outsiders. Consultation or brainstorm leading to a consensus is often desirable when new indicators are created. Indicators created on the fly by analysts as the work is rushed to a conclusion are prone to suffer from their hasty introduction, then to lead to misinterpretation, often over-interpretation, by enthusiast would-be users. It is all too easy for a little information about a small part of the issue to be taken as the answer to the problemAs far as possible, creating indicators during an alysis should follow the same lines as when the process is done a priori i.e. (i) deciding on the facets which need to be included to give a good feel for the concept, (ii) binder these to the questions or observations needed to measure these facets, (iii) ensuring balanced coverage, so that the right input comes from each facet, (iv) working out how to combine the information gathered into a synthesis which everyone agrees is sensible. These are all parts of ensuring face (or content) rigour as in the next section. Usually this should be done in a simple enough way that the user community are all comfortable with the definitions of what is measured.There is some advantage in creating indicators when datasets are already available. You can look at how well the indicators serve to describe the relevant issues and groups, and select the most effective ones. Some analysts rely too much on data reduction techniques such as factor analysisor cluster analysis as a substitute for cerebr ation hard about the issues. We argue that an intellectual process of indicator development should build on, or serve with, more data-driven approaches. 24 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey DataPrincipal component analysis is data-driven, but readily provides weighted averages. These should be seen as no more than a foundation for useful forms of indicator.2.9 ValidityThe basic question behind the concept of boldness is whether an indicator measures what we say or believe it does. This may be quite a basic question if the subject matter of the indicator is visible and readily understood, but the practicalities can be more complex in mundane, but sensitive, areas such as measurement of household income. Where we consider issues such as the value attached to indigenous knowledge the question can become very complex. Numerous variations on the validity theme are discussed extensively in social light research methodology literature.Validity takes us into issues of what d ifferent people understand words to mean, during the development of the indicator and its use. It is good practice to try a variety of approaches with a wide range of relevant people, and carefully compare the interpretations, behaviours and attitudes revealed, to make sure there are no major discrepancies of understanding. The processes of comparison and reflection, then the redevelopment of definitions, approaches and research instruments, may all be encompassed in what is sometimes called triangulation using the results of different approaches to synthesise robust, clear, and easily interpreted results.Survey instrument or indicator validity is a discussion topic, not a statistical measure, but two themes with which statistical survey analysts regularly need to engage are the following. national (or face) validity looks at the extent to which the questions in a survey, and the weights the results are given in a set of indicators, serve to cover in a balanced way the important facets of the notion the indicator is speculate to represent.Criterion validity can look at how the observed values of the indicator tie up with something readilymeasurable that they should relate to. Its aim is to validate a new indicator by reference to something better established, e.g. to validate a prediction retrospectively against the actual outcome.If we measure an indicator of intention to recruit or likelihood of participating beforehand, then for the same individuals later ascertain whether they did participate, we can check the accuracy of the stated intentions, and hence the degree of reliance that can in future be placed on the indicator. As a statistical exercise, criterion validation has to be done through sensible analyses of good-quality data. If the reason for developing the indicator is that there is no satisfactory way of establishing a criterion measure, criterion validity is not a sensible approach. SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data252.10 S ummaryIn this guide we have outlined general features of survey analysis that have wide application to data collected from many sources and with a range of different objectives. Many readers of this guide should be able to use its suggestions unaided. We have pointed out ideas and methods which do not in any way depend on the analyst knowing modern or complicated statistical methods, or having access to specialised or expensive work out resources.The emphasis has been on the importance of preparing the appropriate tables to summarise the information. This is not to belittle the importance of graphical display, but that is at the presentation stage, and the tables provide the information for the graphs. Often key tables will be in the text, with larger, less important tables in Appendices.Often a pilot study will have indicated the most important tables to be produced initially. What then takes time is to decide on exactly the right tables. There are three main issues. The first is to decide on what is to be tabulated, and we have considered tables involving either individual questions or indicators. The second is the complexity of table that isrequired one-way, two-way or higher. The final issue is the numbers that will be presented. Often they will be percentages, but deciding on the most informative base, i.e. what is 100% is also important.2.11 Next StepsWe have mentioned the role of more sophisticated methods. Cluster analysis may be useful to indicate groups of respondents and principal components to identify datadriven indicators. Examples of both methods are in our Modern Methods of Analysis guide where we emphasise, as here, that their role is usually exploratory. When used, they should normally be at the start of the analysis, and are primarily to assist the researcher, rather than as presentations for the reader.Inferential methods are also described in the Modern Methods guide. For surveys, they cannot be as simple as in most courses on statistics , because the data are usually at multiple levels and with unequal numbers at each subdivision of the data. The most important methods are log-linear and logistic models and the newer multilevel modelling. These methods can support the analysts decisions on the complexity of tables to produce.Both the more complex methods and those in this guide are equally applicable to cross-sectional surveys, such as baseline studies, and longitudinal surveys. The latter are often needed for impact assessment. Details of the design and analysis of baseline surveys and those specifically for impact assessment must await another guide26 SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data SSC 2001 Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data27The Statistical Services Centre is attached to the Department of AppliedStatistics at The University of Reading, UK, and undertakes training and consultancy work on a non-profit-making basis for clients outside the University.These statistical guides were origina lly written as part of a contract with DFID to give guidance to research and support staff working on DFID cancel Resources projects. The available titles are listed below.Statistical Guidelines for Natural Resources ProjectsOn-Farm Trials Some Biometric GuidelinesData Management Guidelines for Experimental ProjectsGuidelines for Planning effective SurveysProject Data Archiving Lessons from a Case StudyInformative Presentation of Tables, Graphs and StatisticsConcepts Underlying the Design of ExperimentsOne Animal per Farm?Disciplined Use of Spreadsheets for Data EntryThe Role of a Database Package for Research ProjectsExcel for Statistics Tips and WarningsThe Statistical Background to ANOVAMoving on from MSTAT (to Genstat)Some Basic Ideas of SamplingModern Methods of AnalysisConfidence Significance Key Concepts of Inferential StatisticsModern Approaches to the Analysis of Experimental DataApproaches to the Analysis of Survey DataMixed Models and Multilevel Data Structures in Agr icultureThe guides are available in both printed and computer-readable form. For copies or for further information about the SSC, please use the contact details given below.Statistical Services Centre, The University of ReadingP.O. Box 240, Reading, RG6 6FN United Kingdomtel SSC Administration+44 118 931 8025fax+44 118 975 3169e-mailemailprotectedwebhttp//www.reading.ac.uk/ssc/